In Augustine’s classic defense of Christianity and critique of pagan culture, the City of God Against the Pagans, he introduces a new historical schema that marks a radical departure from prevailing views of history. Rather than view history as a series of cycles, he argues that all of history can be understood linearly, beginning with the creation of the world and ending with a final judgment of mankind by God. Using the Scriptures as his guide, Augustine argues that the relevant similarities and differences between people groups have little to do with race, language, or geographical location; the determining factor is the religious creed and, ultimately, the regeneration of individual men. This factor is used to divide all of mankind into two classes, or cities: the regenerate and the unregenerate.
The City of God and City of Man are defined by their loves. “Two cities, then, have been created by two loves: that is, the earthly by love of self extending even to contempt of God, and the heavenly by love of God extending to contempt of self.” This love of God and of self is variously described through contrasting pairs, such as living “according to the spirit” or “according to the flesh,” and living “according to God” or “according to man.” Augustine argues that the efficient cause of action is located in the will, and goes on to say that men choose that which they most desire. Convinced of this relation between action, causality, and desire, Augustine concludes that
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